Muslim scholars made numerous contributions to the field of psychology, however, the Western historians of psychology have overlooked their contributions to the development and advancement of psychology, their ideas and theories.
Souad Khalil | Libya
Western historians of psychology have overlooked the contributions made by Muslim psychologists to the development and advancement of psychology, as well as the ideas and theories they reached—ideas that had not previously been proposed by any scholars before them. This neglect can be attributed to their lack of knowledge of the scientific heritage of Muslim scholars and of the psychological ideas, concepts, and theories it contains. Perhaps the responsibility for this situation also lies in the failure of modern psychologists to devote sufficient attention to studying our scientific heritage and introducing it to the wider world.
In a study by Anwar Mahmoud Zanati, in which he presents and cites a number of examples and cases, he states:
“Arab and Muslim scholars made numerous contributions to the field of psychology, contributions that astonish anyone who examines them. Psychology developed within the Islamic intellectual heritage in much the same way as the various other branches of knowledge developed among Muslims. Psychology in the Islamic heritage was not merely an art cultivated by poets; rather, scholars of the heritage employed scientific methods such as introspection, observation, and case study. However, this knowledge was dispersed among heritage works concerned with the biological foundations of behavior, as well as philosophical, physical, and mathematical writings. Scholars of the heritage approached psychological phenomena from the perspective of their respective fields of interest. Muslims were pioneers and innovators in many areas of psychology.
The traditional biographical dictionaries and works devoted to the lives and classes of eminent scholars are particularly rich in psychological material. Among them are The Classes of Physicians by Ibn Abi Usaybi’a and Ibn Juljul. Other works extend to biographies of intellectual figures in general, and these writings provide a substantial and reliable foundation for tracing the development of concepts.
Literary works and compilations, such as Kitab al-Imta’ wa al-Mu’anasa (The Book of Enjoyment and Conviviality) and Al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), contain details that had otherwise been neglected or reduced. Philosophical works likewise include philosophers’ views on the soul, in addition to important theories and conceptions that constitute a theoretical foundation for understanding the Islamic conception of the human being and his psychological life. Muslim scholars also incorporated discussions of the soul into their comprehensive philosophical works, after enriching them with commentaries and criticisms of the Greek tradition. Some of them devoted specific chapters to these subjects in their medical writings, as did Abu Bakr al-Razi and Ibn Sina.”
Ibn Sina
Perhaps one of the finest examples of this intellectual achievement is the work of Ibn Sina, who preceded modern physiologists and psychologists in measuring emotional responses on the basis of physiological changes accompanying them.
In treating one of his patients, Ibn Sina suspected that the patient had fallen in love and attempted to discover the name of the girl whom he loved. He devised an ingenious method: he would mention to the patient the names of various countries, neighborhoods, and girls while simultaneously measuring the patient’s pulse in order to determine the degree of emotional response elicited by each name. In this way, he was able to identify the name of the girl the patient loved and even determine the place where she lived.
This method may be regarded as an early precursor to the invention of the modern device known as the galvanic skin response instrument, also referred to as a lie detector.
Ibn Sina, like al-Farabi before him, also pointed to important causes of dreaming that modern scholars would subsequently identify. Both al-Farabi and Ibn Sina maintained that some dreams occur as a result of sensory stimuli affecting the sleeper, whether these stimuli originate externally or arise from within the body.
Ibn Sina states in this regard that when one of the body’s organs is affected by cold or heat, the sleeper may dream that this organ is being placed in fire or in cold water. Contemporary experimental research has demonstrated the validity of this observation. Ibn Sina and al-Farabi also recognized the symbolic dimension of dreams.
Ibn Sina introduced an innovative approach to the treatment of a patient suffering from melancholia. The patient had refused food and drink and had become extremely weak because he believed himself to be a cow. After other physicians had been unable to cure him, Ibn Sina went to see him. At that time, Ibn Sina was a vizier, and he disguised himself as a butcher, accompanied by two assistants whom he instructed to tell the patient that the butcher had come to slaughter him.
Ibn Sina arrived at the patient’s palace in his usual procession, then entered with the two men, carrying a knife, and asked: “Where is this cow so that I may slaughter it?” The young patient imitated the sound of a cow, indicating that he was the one intended. Ibn Sina then ordered: “Take her to the courtyard, tie her hands and feet, and lay her down.”
When the patient heard this, he ran into the middle of the courtyard and lay down on his right side. Abu Ali (Ibn Sina) then sharpened the knife, sat down, and placed his hand on the patient’s waist, as a butcher would do, saying: “What a terribly thin cow! She cannot be slaughtered yet. Feed her until she becomes fat.”
The story continues as related by Nizam al-Din al-‘Arudi al-Samarqandi in the seventh tale of the fourth chapter of his book Chahar Maqala (The Four Discourses).
Ibn Bakhtishu’ also relates a story, attributing it to Galen, concerning a young woman who fell desperately in love and became so ill that she was on the verge of death. Galen realized through his intuition that love lay behind her illness. He took her pulse and began mentioning the name of a young man who had been part of her father’s entourage. Her pulse suddenly accelerated, revealing her love for the young man. Galen then advised her mother to disclose the truth and arrange her marriage to the man she loved. This was eventually accomplished, and the young woman and her husband subsequently regarded her parents with great respect.
A similar story can be found in the writings of Ibn Sina, although his account goes further in suggesting the process of word association, a technique later developed by Jung after his engagement with Freud. Freud himself referred, in the third of his Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, to Jung and his students and their use of this procedure with the Zurich group. It later developed into one of the foundations of psychological measurement through the word-association test.
It is worth noting the psychological dynamics that accompany the physical symptoms experienced by those suffering from love and infatuation. Ibn Sina discussed this relationship in detail in The Canon of Medicine, and he returned to part of it in Al-Najat (The Deliverance). In The Canon, he indicated that he had tested this phenomenon repeatedly and used it as evidence of the body’s responsiveness to psychological illusions.
Arab physicians, particularly Ibn Sina, also developed views concerning the relationship between the soul and the body. This diversity resulted from their open understanding of the theoretical premises through which the nature of the soul was examined. Ibn Sina conveys this psychosomatic relationship in his medical poem.
Ibn Miskawayh (d. 421 AH / 1030 CE)
Ibn Miskawayh became famous for his book Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (The Refinement of Character), in which he devoted considerable attention to the soul and the factors associated with it. He believed that although the soul acquires many of the principles of knowledge through the senses, it possesses principles and functions of its own that do not derive from the senses. These are noble and elevated principles upon which sound reasoning is based.
In his view, the rational soul within us functions like a magnifying instrument capable of apprehending many things that the senses fail to perceive in the foundations of their operations.
He further defines the soul by stating that it is neither a body nor a part of a body, nor one of the states of the body. Rather, it is something distinct from the body in its essence, laws, characteristics, and functions.
Ibn Miskawayh divides the soul into three powers:
The rational power, through which thought, discrimination, and examination of the realities of things take place.
The irascible power, through which anger, courage, boldness in confronting dangers, and the desire for elevation and distinction arise.
The appetitive power, through which desire, the pursuit of nourishment, and the longing for food, drink, sexual relations, and various sensory pleasures arise.
Each of these powers possesses its own virtue: the virtue of the rational power is wisdom; the virtue of the irascible power is courage; and the virtue of the appetitive power is temperance.
These three powers are in constant conflict with one another, with each tending toward the dominance of its own impulses. Ibn Miskawayh expresses the relationship among these forces metaphorically through the famous philosophical allegory involving a human being, a horse, and a dog. All three set out to hunt. If the human being succeeds in controlling the entire operation, the outcome is beneficial to everyone. But if either of the animals succeeds in imposing its impulses, the result will be disastrous and will end in complete failure for all.
Ibn Miskawayh also discusses the essence of the soul, stating that the soul is a living essence that survives and does not accept death or annihilation. It is not life itself; rather, it gives life to everything in which it exists.
In Ibn Miskawayh we find an integrated conception of psychological treatment that lacks little except modern terminology in order to resemble a contemporary theory. His approach may be summarized as follows:
Introspection: examining the conditions of the soul, discovering its defects, treating them firmly, and thoroughly investigating their causes.
Prevention: preserving psychological health by maintaining beneficial habits and avoiding harmful ones.
The social dimension: healthy companionship and social interaction through the careful selection of friends, companions, and associates.
Recreation: through relaxation, humor, good-natured joking, and enjoyment of food and drink within the limits established by reason.
Rationality: by paying attention to intellectual matters and engaging in constructive thought that benefits the human being, since abandoning such activities leads to intellectual stagnation.
Ibn Miskawayh also emphasizes the principle of moderation, which he calls the virtuous mean, situated between the vice of excess and the vice of deficiency. Virtue, in his view, lies between opposing extremes.
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH / 1111 CE)
The three levels of the psyche referred to by Freud—the id, ego, and superego—also have certain parallels in the writings of Abu Hamid al-Ghazali. In the third part of his book Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), which was translated into German in 1913, al-Ghazali discusses the self-reproaching soul (al-nafs al-lawwama), which may be compared to the superego; the soul that commands to evil (al-nafs al-ammara bi al-su’), which may be compared to the id; and the tranquil soul (al-nafs al-mutma’inna), which may be compared to the ego.
Al-Ghazali’s framework does not, of course, amount to what Freud later presented as a comprehensive theory of the human being. Nor does it necessarily prove that Freud had access to or was influenced by Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, despite Freud’s extensive knowledge of the Arab and Islamic intellectual heritage. Freud, for example, referred to Jalal al-Din Rumi in his discussion of the Schreber case, and at the conclusion of his book Beyond the Pleasure Principle he referred to a passage from Maqamat al-Hariri.
Whatever the truth of such possible connections, the issue points to another important matter: our own shortcomings and negligence in examining our intellectual heritage. Humanity had to wait a long time before Freud appeared to rescue the study of the soul and psychology from many of their difficulties, while much earlier Muslim scholars had already developed observations and ideas that deserve serious examination.
Al-Kindi
Al-Kindi also addressed education and moral discipline. In this regard, Ahmad Fu’ad al-Ahwani reports his method of discipline when a child commits an offense: first overlooking the matter, then admonishing the child, and finally resorting to corporal punishment if necessary. He warns that if the child becomes accustomed to constant reprimand and confrontation, this may lead to insolence. At the same time, he recommends praising every good moral quality displayed by the child.
There is also the book al-Tibb al-Ruhani (Spiritual Medicine), which Ibn Abi Usaybi’a refers to as Tibb al-Nufus (Medicine of the Souls). In it, al-Kindi discusses the reform of the soul and its moral character in twenty chapters. Ibn Abi Usaybi’a also refers to other works by al-Kindi concerning the soul, including On the Soul Not Being a Body, A Major Book on the Soul, and A Small Book on the Soul.
Among the statements attributed to al-Kindi by Ibn Abi Usaybi’a is the following idea: the body’s temperament follows the character of the soul.
Since we are concerned here with quotation and transmission, it is worth reproducing a passage from Spiritual Medicine, specifically from the beginning of its fourth chapter, entitled “On Recognizing a Man’s Defects in Himself.”
Al-Kindi explains that because each person is naturally inclined to love himself, approve of his own actions, and view them favorably, he cannot easily prevent his own desires from influencing his judgment. Consequently, he finds it difficult to look upon his character and conduct with pure and impartial reason and to recognize the defects and reprehensible traits within himself. Unless a person recognizes these faults, he will not abandon them, because he is not even aware of them, let alone motivated to correct them.
For this reason, he should entrust himself to a wise man who is closely acquainted with him and remains in his company. Whatever this person observes and recognizes in him should be communicated to him without causing excessive distress or humiliation. This, according to al-Kindi, is sufficient guidance in this matter, and whoever applies it will continually improve and refine himself.
This may be regarded as an early lesson in the relationship between the analyst and the analyzed, even though al-Kindi himself was not prevented from disagreeing with many of Galen’s views or from exposing what he considered to be errors in them.
Abu Bakr al-Razi
Abu Bakr al-Razi, who has been described as the “Galen of the Arabs,” also made significant contributions to this field. His great work Al-Hawi (The Comprehensive Book of Medicine) is said to have been compiled by his students, who collected his medical opinions and observations into twelve volumes.
Because of its immense value, the work was abridged by numerous scholars and translated into Latin in 1486 in Brescia. It was subsequently printed in Venice in 1542. A copy remained in Cambridge University Library, in the King’s College Library. According to Browne, however, what survives of the work does not exceed half of the original, and the surviving sections are scattered among the British Museum, the Escorial, the Bodleian Library, Moscow, Petrograd, and the Egyptian National Library in Cairo. Other abridged portions are preserved in Berlin.
It is also worth drawing attention to some fascinating medical cases that demonstrate remarkable insight, sensitivity, and a profound understanding of the relationship between physical illness and psychological states. Some of these cases are mentioned in Al-Faraj ba’d al-Shidda (Deliverance After Hardship) by al-Tanukhi. Nizam al-Din al-‘Arudi al-Samarqandi also included some of them in Chahar Maqala.
However, as Browne points out, a large number of such cases are found in the seventh volume of the Latin translation under the title “Examples from the Stories of Patients,” including anecdotes and observations.
How much there is in our heritage that the West recognized at an early stage! There is even an anecdote that may allow our French colleagues to appreciate something of the purpose behind our attempt to approach this heritage critically rather than simply accepting it uncritically. Their ancestors, in many respects, were more aware of the importance of this heritage than our own predecessors were; indeed, they often pointed us toward areas that deserved attention. Without them, we might have remained unaware of some of them.
The anecdote concerns one of the buildings of the University of Paris medical faculty in the fourteenth century. At one point, the building had fallen into disrepair, while the university administration lacked sufficient funds to restore it. They therefore sought financial assistance from a prominent financier of the time, who, as was customary, demanded security for the loan.
Since the university possessed no security other than its books, the financier stipulated that al-Razi’s Al-Hawi should serve as collateral for the money he provided.
There are numerous statements by Orientalists and Western historians of science concerning the contributions of Arab civilization and its scholars to various fields of knowledge, including psychology.
Among them was Baron Carra de Vaux, one of the prominent French Orientalists and among the scholars who devoted particular attention to Ibn Sina at the beginning of the previous century. He maintained that the Romans had failed to preserve and properly develop the intellectual legacy they had inherited from the Greeks, whereas the Arabs mastered that legacy, improved it, and developed it until they handed it on to the modern age.
George Sarton, one of the greatest historians of science, likewise rejected attempts by certain historians to diminish the contribution of the East to civilization by claiming that the Arabs and Muslims merely transmitted ancient sciences without adding anything to them.
Such a view is mistaken. Without the contribution of Arab and Muslim scholars, the progress of civilization would have been delayed by several centuries.
Read: Literature and the Arts: A Creative Relationship
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Souad Khalil, hailing from Benghazi Libya, is a writer, poet, and translator. She has been writing on culture, literature and other general topics.
