Sindhi and Pāli: A comparative Study

This study demonstrates a strong linguistic affinity between Pāli and Sindhi, with over 40% shared vocabulary, often retaining identical meanings and closely related pronunciation

• As a primarily religious language, Pāli may also have functioned as a vernacular among the common people of Sindh.
• Pāli does not possess its own independent alphabet. Pāli manuscripts have historically been written using Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, and Cambodian scripts, as well as several ancient scripts derived from Brāhmī characters

Aziz Kingrani

The purpose of this comparative study of Pāli and Sindhi is to demonstrate their close morphological, syntactic, phonetic, and lexical relationship. Many Pāli scholars have overlooked the Sindhi origins of several words attested in Pāli, leading to uncertain or incomplete etymological interpretations. This oversight is significant, particularly given that Sindh was a major center of Buddhism in pre-Islamic times (Kalhoro, 2013: 115), and that Buddhism spread widely across the region during the Mauryan period, especially under Aśoka (Kingrani, 2019: 57). As a primarily religious language, Pāli may also have functioned as a vernacular among the common people of Sindh.

Toponymic correspondences such as Pāli ‘Macchko’ (“fish”) and ‘Kāccho’ (“armpit” “marshy land”) with present-day Machhko and Kachho in Sindh further suggest a strong linguistic connection between Pāli and Sindhi. Pāli is generally classified as a Middle Indo-Aryan language and is best known as the language of the Theravāda Buddhist canon, preserved through religious and scholarly traditions (Bimala, 1933: V; Gruyter, 1996: 3). Childers describes Pāli as a Prakrit vernacular spoken in the sixth century BCE and preferred by the Buddha for communicating with ordinary people (Childers, 1875: vii; Thera, 2013: 1).

Similarly, Sindhi has historically been the language of common people, though it lacks early written records, apart from loanwords in the Rigveda and Pāṇini’s grammar. Despite being classified as a Modern Indo-Aryan language, Sindhi retains extensive lexical and structural connections with Proto-Dravidian and Dravidian languages. Grierson’s view, cited by Salahuddin, links Pāli to the ancient language of Takṣaśilā and notes its resemblance to Paiśācī Prakrit (Salahuddin, 2012: 256). Salahuddin further argues that the language of Mohenjo-daro gradually evolved into Pāli, Sindhi, and Sanskrit, and that shared vocabulary between Sindhi and Pāli indicates a stage predating Prakrit (Salahuddin, 2012: 256–262). These perspectives support the view that Sindhi and Pāli represent two ancient branches of a common linguistic heritage.

Lexical Similarities between Pāli and Sindhi

There is significant lexical similarity between Pāli and Sindhi, indicating a close historical relationship. Due to changes in script, religious context, and lexical attrition, many Sindhi-origin words found in Pāli are no longer used in modern Sindhi. Despite this loss, the remaining shared vocabulary—showing both identical meanings and phonological variation—clearly demonstrates the linguistic affinity between the two languages. The examples presented are drawn from selected Pāli–English dictionaries.

Pāli                                        Sindhi                                               English

Akkhara (اکر)                             Akharu    (اکر)                                        Letter

Akkha/Akkhi (اک)                      Akha    (اک)                                          Eye

Tārā     (تارا)                   Taaraa   (تارا، دوڏا، ماڻڪي)                 Pupil of eye

Aggh   (اگھ)                                 Aghu (اَگھُ، مُلھ)                                 Price

Aggi      (اگ)                                  Aag   (آڳ)                                          Fire

Aṅgaņa (انگن)                          Angann (اڱڻ)                  Courtyard, Open space

Aṅga (انگ)                Angu (عضوو، جسم جو حصو)                 limb, bofy pards

Aṅgār (انگار)                           Angaar (اڱار، ڪوئلو)                  Coal, Charcoal

Aṅguṭṭha (انگوٺا)                    Angutho (آڱوٺو)                        Thumb, finger

Aṅguli (انگولي)                             Aangur (آڱر)                                Finger

Pabba (پب)                                 Pabu (پَٻُ)                                 Part of foot, toe

Acchā/Acch (اڇ، اَڇا)         Achho/Achh (اڇو، اَڇُ)             white, bright

Nāḷi (نالي)                                       Naali (نالي، نلي)                             Pipe

Ațțha (8)                                        Atha (8)                                       Eight

Aṅu (انو/اڻو)                             Ano/Uno (اُڻو)                             An atom

Addh (اڌ)                                          Adh (اڌ)                                      Half

Anāpucchā (انا پُڇا)                 Anpuchha (اڻ پُڇا)                 without asking

Abala (اَبَلَ)                        Abala (اَٻَلُ، ڪمزور)                         weak

Mitt (امِٽ)                                      Mitt (مائٽ)                          not relative

Amba (امب)                               Ambu/nbu (امبُ)                               Mango

Ambara (امبر)                    Ambaru (امبرُ، آڪاس)                        Sky

Ammā (اما)                                       Amaan (امان)                               Mother

Putt (پوٽ)                                                 Putt (پُٽ)                Mother’s son, brother

Ayyā (ايا)                        Aaya (آيا، ٻار سنڀالڻ وارِي)             Lady

Arūpa (اروپ)                     Aroop (اَ رُوپ، بد شڪل)                Formless

Sacca (سچ)                                          Sach (سچ)                                      Truth

Are (اري!)                                     Are (اڙي!)                                    Hey!, Hello!

Arog (اَرُگ)                Arog (اَروڳ، روڳ نه، صحتمند)         healthy

Alajjī (اَلَجي)                     Alajji (اَلَڄي، لجي نه، بي شرم)            Shameless

Alasa (اَلَس)                        Aalas (آلس يا آرس)                       Lazy, Laziness

Arūpī (اَروپِي),                              Aroopi (اَروپِي، بدصورت)                     Formless

Alābba (اَلاڀ)                      Alaabh (اَلاڀ، بي فائدو)                        Loss

Alla (اَلَ)                                Aalo (آلو، گھِميل)                        Wet, Moist

Avatār (اوَتار)                                 Aotaar (اوتار)                               a deity

Daru (دَرو)                           Daar (ڏارُ، وڻ جو ٽار)                  green wood

Avera (اَوير)                          Averu (اَويرُ، ويرُ نه)                      not enmity

Avella (اَويل)                      Avellu (اَويلُ، اَويرُ، ڪُمهلو)       improper time

Dharā (ڌارا)                                 Dhaara (ڌارا)                         stream, flow, line

Ākas (آڪاس)                               Aakaas (آڪاس)                            Sky

Āsa (آس)                                 Aas (آس، اميد)                               Wish, desire

Ucca (اُچ)                                 Ucho (اوچو، مٿانهون)                    High

Ujjala (اُجل)                                   Ujaalo (اُجالو)                              Bright

Unna (اُن)                                              Unna (اُن)                                   wool

Bhūmi (ڀومي)                              Bhoomi (ڀُومي)              ground, earth

Ussūra (اُسور)                             Asur (اَسُر)                          Sunrise

Kaccha (ڪَڇَ)             Kachh (ڪَڇَ، بغل)     armpit, marshy land

(Probably Kachho?)

Kadā (ڪَڊا)                                               Kadahan (ڪڏ، ڪڏهن)              When

Vikkaya (وڪيه)                   Vikyo (وڪيو، وڪرو)      buying, selling, Trade

Chhatta (ڇَٽ)                           Chhatt (ڇَٽُ، ڇٽي)       Umbrella, sun shed

Chakkā (ڇڪا)                            Chhako (ڇڪو)                set of six

Jana (جَن)                                    Jano (ڄڻو، هڪ ڃڻو)          man, person

Pacāraka (پچارڪ)                       Parcharik (پرچارڪ)                   preacher

Paccana (پچن/پچڻ)                      Pachan (پچڻ، ٻڙڪڻ)            boiling

Bala (بَل)                                                  Balu (ٻَلُ)                            Power of insight

Dhan (ڌن)                                               Dhan (ڌن)                              Treasure

Pani (پنِي)                                                 Pani (پڻِي)                                        Trader

Paniya (پنيا)                     Paniyo (واپار جو وکر)              Item of trade

Dhātu (ڌاتو)                                Dhatoo (ڌاتُو)                             Metal

Ghara (گھر)                                           Ghar (گھر)                                 Home

Paputta (پَپوٽ)                                   ParPoto (پڙپوٽو)                          Grandson

Pabbat (پَبَتَ)                     Parbat (پربت، جبل)                        Mountain

Maraņā (مرنا/مرڻا)                      Marano (مرڻو)                    Death, after death

Pāda (پاڊ)                                       Paar (پاڙ)                               Root

Para (پَرَ)                                  Par (پَرَ، ڌاريو)                     other, out sider

Kāra (ڪار)                         Kaar (ڪار، ڪم)                 Action, work

Ghātī or ghāta (گھات)                Ghaat (گھات)                      destroying life

Pāra (پار)                           Paar (پار، ٻئي ڪناري)         Opposite Shore

Pāpa (پاپ)                               Paapu (پاپ، ڏوھ)                   Sin

Puccha (پوڇ)                                Puchh (پُڇ)                      Tail

Puchhā (پوڇا)                              Puchha (پُڇا)             Asking, questioning

Pițțha (پِٺ)                                                  Puthh (پُٺ)                        back

Putt (پوٽ)                                                    Putt (پُٽ)                              son

Pura (پور)                                          pur (پُر، پُور)                               town, city

Bala (بَلَ)                                                 Balu (ٻَلَ)                                strength

Bāla (بال)                                                Baal (ٻال، ٻار)                              Child

Bāhā (باها)                               Banhan (ٻانهن)                          Arm

Bahira (بَهِر)                              Baahir (ٻاهر)                     outer, external

Bila (بِلَ)                                               Bilu (ٻِل، ٻِرُ)                                     Hole

Bij (بِج)                                                   Biju (ٻِجُ)                                          Seed

Bhaga/Bhāg (ڀگ/ڀاگ)                 Bhaagu (ڀاڳُ)                               Luck

Bhikkhu (ڀِڪُو)                                   Bhikshoo (ڀِڪشُو)                Buddhist monk

Bhitti (ڀِتِ)                                           Bhiti (ڀِتِ)                                    wall

Bhū (ڀُو)                                                Bhoon (ڀُون)                             earth

Bhūri (ڀورِي)                      Bhori (ڀورِي، ڀورائي)                       Wisdom

Bheri (ڀيرِ)                                            Bheri (ڀيرِ)                               Drum

Maccha (مڇ)                                        Machh (مڇ)                        big fish

Macchi (مڇي)                            Machhi (مڇي)                       Fish

Mati (مَت)                                            Mati (مَت)                              Wisdom

Mana (مَن)                                           Manu (مَن)                              Mind

Sara (سَرَ)                                            Sar (سَرَ، ڍنڍ)                            Lake

Māņa (ماڻ)                            Maan (ماڻُ، ماپو)           measurement

Mīna (مِينَ)                                           Meen (مِينَ)                     Fish

Mun̄ja (مُج)                                  Munjj (مُڃ)               Type of Grass

Mora (مور)                                             Morre (مور)                  Peacock

Ratta (رَت)                                             Ratt (رَت)                        blood, red

Ruņņa (روڻ)                                           Ru’an (رُئڻ)                        weeping

Rog (روگ)                                              Rog (روڳ، درد)                 disease pain

Rūpa (روپ)                                             Roop (روپ)                           feature

Rogī (روگي)                           Rogi (روڳي، دردمند)                         Patient

Lābbh (لاڀ)                                          Laabh (لاڀ)                              gain

likkhan̦a (لکڻ)                                     Likhan (لکڻ)                 to write, Writing

lin᷾ga (لنڱ)                                             Ling (لِڱ)                     Parts of body

Lipī (لِپِي)                                              Lipi (لِپِي)                            Alphabet, letters

Lipīkāra (لِپِيڪار)                                Lipikaar (ليکڪ)                 writer

Lubbh, Lobbh (لُڀ)                           lobh (لوڀ)                         greediness

Lūņa or Loņņa (لُڻ)                             Lunan (لُڻڻ)                            to reap

Lekhanī (ليکڻي)                   Likhani (لکڻي، ڪلڪ)                       Pen

lekh (ليک)                         Lekh (ليک)                        Article, writing

Wagga (وَگ)                Wag (وَڳ، اُٺن جو)             group (of camels)

Lok (لُڪ)                                             Loke (لوڪ)                          World, People

Loha (لُھَ)                                               Loh (لوھ)                         Iron

Lohkāra (لُهڪار)                   Lohaar (لوهار)                    Blacksmith

Vacch (وَڇ)                                           Vachh (وَڇ)                   Calf (of buffalo)

Vaņījjā (وَڻج)                                          Vanj (وَڻج)                      Trade

Vicār (وِچار)                                        Vichaar (ويچار)            thought

Virāga (وِراگ)                     Veraag (ويراڳ)         having no desire

Visāl (وسال)                            Vishal (وِشال)                  Wide

Vejja (ويج)                                Vejj (ويڄ)                         Doctor

Vera (وير)                                    Veru (ويرُ)                       Enmity

Sajjan (سَجن)                                  Sajjanu (سَڄڻ)              well-wisher

Velā (ويلا)                                Velo (ويلو)                      Time

Saț̦̦țha (60)                                   Sath (60)                       Sixty

Satī (سَتِي)                                                     Sati (سَتِي)                       Virtuous

Satthi (سَٿِ)                                    Sathar (سٿر)                       Thigh

Sabala (سَبل)                                             subalu (سُٻَلُ)                          strong

Sabbh (سَڀ)                                              Sabhu (سَڀ)                            All

Sappa (سَپ)                                     Sapu (سَپ)                               Snake

Sarīra (سَرير)                                              Sarir (سَرير)                               Body

Sassu (سس)                                   Sasu (سس)               Mother in law

Sadhu (سَڌ)                                         Saadhu (ساڌ)                Good

Sāla (سال)                                    Salo (سالو)                 Brother in law

Sināna (سنان)                                      Sanan (سنان)                     Bathing

Sikhana (سِکن)                                        Sikhanu (سکڻ)                 To Learn

Sikhā (سِکا)                                   Sikhiya (سِکيا)               Study, learning

Siņga (سِگ)                                         Singu (سِڱ)                             Horn

Sigh (سِگھ)                                     Sagh (سَگھ)                             Power

Soņņa (سوڻ)                                                     Sonu (سون)                                  Gold

Siṅgī (سِنگِي)                                                       Singi (سِڱِي)                         Horny stick, Mandhani

Subha (سُڀ)                                                   Sobh (سوڀ)                     Luck, success

Hatha (هٿ)                                                    Hath (هٿ)                             Hand

Hala (هل)                                                           Har (هر)                             Plough

Hiṅga (هِنگ)                                                       Hing (هنڱ)                         A plant

(Mahāthara: 1949)

Abhyās (اڀياس)                                              Abhyaas (اڀياس)                            Study

Māgg (ماگ)                                             Maag (ماڳ، جڳھ)                     Distance, place

Ăddhāra (آڌار)                                     Aadharu (آڌار)                                    Support

Addha (اڌ)                                              Adhu (اڌ)                                             Half

Agho (اگھُ)                                               Aghu (اگھُ)                                            Price

Ajja (اج)                                                     Ajju (اڄ)                                         today

Alāpo (اَلاپ)                                       Aalaap (آلاپ)                            melody voice

Alobbha (اَلُڀ)                  Alabh (اَلوڀ، بي لالچ)                                not greedy

An-Āriyo (ان-آريو)                        AnAriyo (اڻ آريو)                 not noble, un-Ariya

Aņņik (اڻيڪ)                                      Anek (انيڪ)                          Countless

Ārām (ارام)                          Araam (آرام، سڪون)                  Rest, joy

Aphalo (اَڦل)                                      Aphal (اڦل)                                  fruitless

Anto (انتُ)                                       Antu (انت)                                           End

Āsa (آس)                                      Aas (آس،)                                      wish, desire

Akko (اڪ)                                     Akk (اڪ)                                   a plant

Āsacc (اسچ)                                Asach (اَسچ، ڪوڙ)              not truth, lie

Āsā (آسا)                                            Asa (آسا)                                  Wish

Sāddu (ساڌو)                                      Sadhoo (ساڌو)                   religious leader

Āsādhu (اَساڌو)                     Asaadhoo (اَساڌو)                  Not religious

Atul (اَتول)                                       Atul (اَتول/اتور)                           incomparable

Bāhu (باھو)                                           Baah (باھ)                               Fire, arm

Bhaggu (ڀگو)                                  Bhago (ڀڳ، ڀڳل)                            Broken

Chintā (چنتا)                          Chinta (چنتا، ڳڻتي)                        worry, though

Cunno (چونُ)                          Choono (چونو، سيڙهي)                      Lime

Danbho Dambha (دنڀ)                       Danbh (ڏنڀ)                             Deceit

Deso (ديس)                                         Des (ديس)                                  country

Digho (دگھو)                                           Digho (ڊگهو)                                   long

Duhalo (دوهلُ)                  Duhal (دُهل)        Abdomen of pregnant woman, Drum

Dukkho (دوکُ)                            Dukh (ڏُک)                     pain, painful

Dhatu (ڌاتو)                             Dhatu (ڌاتو)                     base of word

Dudho (دڌ)                                Dudh (ڏڌ)                     butter milk, lassi

Dukaro (دُڪر)                      Dukaru (ڏُڪر، ڏُڪار)          famine or drought

Dukhi (دُکِي)                               Dukhi (ڏُکارو)                  Sorrowful

Gabho (گڀ)                               Gabhu (ڳڀ)                      womb, pregnancy

Gaj (گج)                                        Gaj, Gaj (گج، گاج)                 Roar

Ganbhiro (گنڀير)                     Ganbhir (گنڀير، ڳنڀير)                   Solemn

Giti (گيت)                                           Geet (گيت)                          Song

Goro (گورو)                              Goro (گورو، ڀُورو)                         white

Guņ (گوڻ)                                           Gun (گُڻ)                             goodness

Kambalo (ڪمبلُ)                            Kambal (ڪمبل)                  Blanket

Kami (ڪَمِي)                               Kami (، ڪَمِي، مزور)                         laborer

Kaņņa (ڪاڻا)                                     Kanno (ڪاڻو)                                Blind

Kāno (ڪَانُ)                                     Kanu (ڪَنُ)                                Ear

Kņraņa (ڪرڻ)                               Karan (ڪرڻ)                             to do

Kari (ڪَرِ)                                        Kari (ڪَرِ)                               do

Kavi (ڪَوِي)                                    Kavi (ڪَوِي)                               Poet

Khāro (کارو)                                   Kharo (کارو)                              Salty

Hath (هٿ)                                   Hath (هٿ)                                     Hand

Jala (جل)                                      Jal (جل)                                        Water

Jețțh (جيٺ)                                Jethu (ڄيٺ)                    name of month

Kāl (ڪال)                                     Kaal (ڪال)                Time

Joyā (جويا)                                   Joe (جوءِ)                      wife

Lobho (لُڀَ)                                 lobha (لوڀ، لالچ)         greediness

Macchko (ماڇڪو)                     Machhako (ماڇڪو)       fish

(Probably, Machhko, a name of an area of fishermen which is still in Panjab, Pakistan)

Maccho (مڇ)                              Machh (مڇ)                              catfish, crocodile

Kummo (ڪومُ)                          Kumi (ڪُمِي)                                  Tortile

Lābbho (لاڀُ)                             Laabh (لاڀُ)                                 benefit

Laddho (لڌُ)                             Ladho (لڌو)                              saw or seen

Lajji (لج)                                     Lajja (لڄ)                                 Shame

Lațț̦hi (لٺ)                                Latha (لٺ)                                   Stick

Lekhako (ليکڪ)                    Lekhaku (ليکڪ)                       to draw line, writer

Lekho (ليکُ)                          Lekhu (ليک)                                     wright-up, article

Lepo (ليپُ)                            lepo (ليپو)                              Whitewash with mud

Madhu (مَڌو)                        MadhU (مَڌُ، شراب)                                   Vine

Mahā (مها)                            Maha (مها)                                              big

Manjjhando (منجهند)        Majhand (منجهند)                              midday

Nadi (ندي)                            Nadi (ندي)                                         River

Mala (مَل)                             Malh (مَلَ، ملھ)                            Sindhi wrestling

Mando (مندو)                      Mando (مبڊو)                                lame

Sadd (سد)                            Sadd (سڏ)                                            call

Māni (مانِ)                           Maan (مانُ)                                          respect

Mano (مَنُ)                            Manu (مَنُ)                                         Mind

Māro, Maro (مَرُ، مار)          Maar, maru (مارُ، مَرُ،موت)                  death

Masi (مَسِ)                              Mai (مَسِ)                                      Ink

Mās (ماس)                             Maas (ماس)                              flesh, meat

Meghu (ميگھ)                      Meghu (ميگھ، مينهن)                     rain

Nād (ناد)                                Naad (ناد)                                 roar, an instrument

Nagari (نگري)                       Nagari (نگري)                             hamlet, village

Nāggo (ناگُ)                         Nango (نانگو)                                 naked, bare

Nāri (ناري)                        Naar (ناري)                             female

Nar/Nār (نر، نار)                      Nar (نر، نار)                               male

Nava (9)                               Nanva (9)                                         nine

Nāvā (ناوا)                            Naav (ناوَ، ناءٌ)                                boat

Navo (نَوُ)                             Naon (نئون)                                       new

Nibbhogo (نِڀُگَ)        Nibbhago (نِڀَگُ)   Nibhagu (نِڀاڳ)          unlucky, bad luck

Nīca (نچا)                         Neech (نيچ)                                   mean, low

Nikkammo (نِڪمُ)         Nikamo (نڪمو)                               lazy, workless

Nilajjo (نِلَج)                     Nilajo (نِلَڄو)                                  shameless

Pāpo (پاپُ)              Papu (پاپُ، ڏوھ)                         sinless

Oțțho (اُٺ)                     utha (اُٺ)                                             camel

Pāpi (پاپِي)                       Papi (پاپِي)                                        Sinner, Cruel

Patanֺ҆go (پتنگ)              Patangu (پتنگ)                               a moth

Pāti (پاٽِ)                        PaatI (پاٽ)                                       earthen pot

Phan (ڦن)                        Phan (ڦڻ)                                        hood

Puccho (پوڇ)                    Puchh (پُڇ)                                       tail

Pucchā (پوڇا)                  Puchha (پُڇا)                               asking, quarry

Purāno (پورانُ)                 Purano (پُراڻو)                             old

Raso (رسُ)                         Rasu (رَسُ)                            juice type

Ratha (رَٿَ)                       Rath (رَٿَ)                                 Cart

Ripu (رِپو)                            Ripu (رِپُ)                            Powerful, enemy

Rosano (رُسَنُ)                 Rusanu (رُسَڻُ)                                 angry

Sabbho (سڀ)                  Sabh (سڀ)                                  All

Sadā (سدا)                        Sada (سدا)                                   always

Saddo (سَدُ)                     Sadd (سڏ)                                     call

Sanjhā, Sājh (سنجها، سجھ)   Sangho (سنجهو)          evening, twilight, dusk

Sappo (سَپُ)                  Sappu (سَپُ)                             Snake

Sigho (سِگھُ)                 Sigho (سِگھو)                                 quick

Sikkho (سِکُ)                Sikhu (سِکُ)                                    learn

Sundaro (سُندرُ)            Sunder (سُندر، سُهڻو)                     beautiful

Tarano (تَرنُ)                   Taranu (تَرڻُ)                                  to swim

Vāro (وارُ)                        Varu (وارُ)                                      day

Vijju, Vijjū (وِجو)            Viju (وِڄُ)                                lightning

(Childers: 1875)

Asubbha (ااَسوڀ)          Asobh (اَسوڀ، ناڪامي)               foulness

Dāna (دانَ)                      Daan (دانُ، بخشش)                                 Almsgiving

Dhātu (ڌاتو)                   Dhatu (ڌاتو)                           element, metal

Dosa (دُس)                        Dauns (دونس)                         Hatred, Anger

Kalyāņa (ڪلياڻ)                       Kaylan (ڪلياڻ)                     good, peace

(Nyanatiloka.Ven: 1980)

Akkhāyin (اکايِن)                        Aakhan (آکڻ)                      telling, saying

Agaro (اَگَرُ)                    Agaro (اَڳرو، ڳرو نه، هلڪو)           weightless

Angaņa (اگڻَ)                Aganu (اَڱڻ)                               Courtyard

Atala (اٽل)                     Atalu (اٽل)                                      Firm

Akhāta (اَکاٽَ)            Akhatu (اَکاٽ، نه کوٽڻ)                  undug

Ajgara (اجگر)              Ajgara (اجگر، ازدها)                                rock snake

Andha (انڌَ)                Andhu (انڌُ)                        Blinded, blinding, priding

Amara (امر)             Amar (امر)                      Immortal

Alagga (الگ)            Alag (الڳ)                     not attached

Avasa (اَوَسَ)               Avas (اَوَسُ، بيوس)               powerless

Avijjā (اَوِجا)                 Avija (اَوِڄا، بي عِلمي)             ignorance

Kathā (ڪَٿا)                Katha (ڪَٿا)                      to tell, to talk   (story)

Khāta (کاٽ)              Khaat (کاٽ، کاٽ هڻڻ)                          digging

Khādā (کادا)                Khadho (کاڌو)                                  food

Khīra (کِير)                   Khir (کِير)                                     milk, milky

Khura (کور)                 Khur (کُر)                           hoof of animal

Gandhāra (گنڌار)        Qandhar (قنڌار)                    Qandhar city

Garu (گرو)                    Garo (ڳرو)                                 heavy

Cakk (چَڪ)             Chak (ڪُڀارڪي چَڪ)              quell to turn round

Candan (چندن)             Chandan (چندن)                      Sandal like tree

Camma (چَمَ)               Chamu (چَمُ، چمڙي)                              skin

Cintā (چِنتا)              Chinta (چِنتا، فڪر)        act of thinking

Cora (چور)                  Chore (چور)                 thief

Jagat (جگت)               Jagat (جڳت)               world

Jagga (جگ)                Jaag (جاڳ)                 wakefulness

Jāgara (جاگر)          Jagar (جاڳر، جاڳ)          waking, watchful

Jāgarata (جاگرت)     Jaarta (جاڳرتا)           Watchfulness

Jita (جيت)              Jeet (جيت)                   conquer, victory

Jivhā (جِوَھ)            Jibh (ڄِڀ)                          tongue

Joti (جوتِ)              Jot (جوت)                          brightness

Than (ٿن/ٿڻ)           Thann (ٿڻ)             breast of woman or animal teat

Thambbha (ٿنڀ)       Tanbh (ٿنڀ)                 Pillar

Thāla (ٿال)                  Thaalh (ٿالھ)                dish, plate

Thālī (ٿالي)                   Thalhi (ٿالھي)            earthen pot, plate

Doha (دُھَ)                   Duh (ڏُھَ، ڏُهڻ)              milking

Dvāra (دُوار)                 Duvaar (دُوار)                 door

Dhuta (ڌوت)                 Dhoto (ڌوتو)             washed cleaned

Nagara (نگر)             Nagaru (نگر)             village, township

Nacca (نَچ)                Nachu (نَچ)                 dancing, nautch

Naccana (نڇن/نچڻ)    Nachan (نچڻ)          to dance

Natthu (نٿو)               Nathu (نَٿُ)                  Nose (ornament of nose)

Nabha (نَڀ)               Nibhu (نِڀ)                       Sky

Nāsa (ناس)                 Naas (ناس، فنا)                 ruin

Nilajja (نِلَج)                Nilajj (نِه لڄُ)               shameless

Nilobha (نِه لُڀ)         Nilobh (نِه لوڀ)          No greedless, free from desire

Pkka (پَچَ/پَڪَ)             Pakk/pach (پَڪَ/پَچَ)       cook, bake

Paggharaņa (پگهرڻَ)     Paghran (پگهرڻ)            trickling, oozing

Paccaņa (پچڻ)               Pachan (پچڻ)            cook, boil

Paņya (پڻيا)                   Pani (پڻي)        trader, article of trade, to be sold

Pabbhāta (پَڀات)         Pirbhaat (پرڀات)            Dawn, dawning

Parikkhā (پَرِکا)          Parkh (پرک)              examination, investigation

Bunda (بوند/بونڊ)      Bund (بُنڊ)             stem or root of tree

Bhagga (ڀگ)              Bhag (ڀڳ)                    broken

Bhatta (ڀَتَ)           Bhat (ڀَتَ)         feeding, food, meal (Sindhi: food of rice)

Bhitti (ڀِتِ)                  Bhit (ڀِتِ)                              wall

Bhukk (ڀوڪ)             Bhaunk (ڀونڪ)                  to bark

Bheri (ڀيرِ)                 Bher (ڀيرِ، چڙو)            A kettle-drum, drum of ruler or lord

Makkhaņa (مکڻ)            Makhan (مکڻ)             butter, oil

Maņa (مڻ)                Mann (مڻ)           a gem type thing gotten from head of snake

Matha (مٿ)                Matho (مٿو)                head, skull

Madhura (مَڌور)           Madhur (مَڌُر)              sweet

Madhuratta (مَڌورتا)      Madhurta (مَڌُرتا)      sweetness

Mandira (مندر)               Mandir (مندر)               Temple, house

Malla (مَلَ)                      Malh (ملھ)                      wrestler

Rakkha/Rakkhā (رَکَ)       Rakh (رَکَ، رک ڪرڻ)       care,   Guarding

Ranga (رَنگَ)                       Rang (ربگ)                       color, paint

Racchā (رَڇا)                      Rachh (رَڇ)         net for fishing, carriage road

Randha (رنڌ)            Radhu (رِنڌُ، رِنڌڻ، رِڌڻ)                 cooked

Lakkhī (لَکِي)                Lakhi (لَکِي)               Luck, good fortune

Lajjā (لجا)                    Lajju (لڄا)                          Shame, shamefulness

Labha (لڀن)                  Labhan (لڀڻ، لهڻ)                         to be received

Labhana (لڀڻ/لڀن)          Labhan (لڀڻ)                     receiving, taking

Likhana (لکڻ/لکن)          Likhan (لکڻ)                 to write, writing

Likhata/Likhati (لکت)       Likhat (لکت)              writing, carving

Vattu (وتو)                          Vaat (وات)                     the mouth

Vadh (وڍ)                        Vadh (وڍ، وڍڻ)              cutting, killing

Vallī (وَلِ)                            Vali (وَلِ)                      a climber plant

Vasati (وستي)                  Vasti (وستي)          dwelling, abode, residence

Vassa (وس)                      Vass (وس، مينهن)                rain

Vāk (واڪ)            Vaak (واڪ، وڪري وقت واڪ ڏيڻ)   voice, speech, talk

Virāga (وِراگ)         Veraag (ويراڳ)       dispassionateness, absence of desire

Velā (ويلا)                   Velo (ويلو)                       Time

Sakhī (سَکِي)                  Sakhi (سَکِي، سهيلي)          female friend

Satī (سَتِي)                    Sati (سَتِي)                   a good or chaste woman

Samudda (سَمود)         Samund (سمُنڊ)           sea, ocean

Sādhu (ساڌو)                Sadhu (ساڌُ، پاڪ)          Virtuous, pious

Sārasa (سارس)                Saras (سارس)                   water bird

Sālī (سالِي)                          Sali (سالِي)                      sister in law

Sīsa (سِيس)                       Sisu (سِيس، سِرُ)                    head

(Davids T.W Ryhs and William Sted: 1921)

Phonology

Phonology studies how languages organize and pattern sounds, focusing on abstract rules and mental representations rather than physical sound production, which belongs to phonetics. Words are articulated in syllables, each consisting of a vowel alone or a vowel with one or more consonants. For example, the Pāli word aLābho has three syllables (a-lā-bho): the first contains only a vowel, while the latter two consist of a consonant plus a vowel (Rahman, 2009: 4). The same word, with identical meaning and syllabic structure, also occurs in Sindhi.

Alphabet

Pāli does not possess its own independent alphabet. Pāli manuscripts have historically been written using Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, and Cambodian scripts, as well as several ancient scripts derived from Brāhmī characters. In modern usage, Pāli is also written in the Romanized script (Walder, 2001: 1). Most commonly today, the Roman script is used to write Pāli (Bomhard, 2018: 1).

According to Parniola (1997: 2), the Pāli alphabet consists of 42 letters, divided into eight vowels, thirty-three consonants, and one nasal sound. Charles Duroiselle, however, states that the Pāli alphabet consists of 41 letters: six vowels, two diphthongs, thirty-two consonants, and one auxiliary sound known as Niggalūta (Duroiselle, 1997: 1).

In contrast, the Sindhi language consists of 52 letters, largely due to the influence of Arabic and Persian, and has ten vowels:

a (ا), o (و), e (ي), i (اِ), ȃ (اَ), ǎ (اُ), ā (آ), ū (اَو), ō (اُو), ǃ (اِي).

With regard to prefixes and suffixes, both languages show considerable similarity, though with slight differences (Parniola, 1997: 86). Several prefixes are identical in both languages, such as a, su, ku, nir or ni, and aņ.

The aspirated consonants in Sindhi and Pāli are largely identical, such as bh, gh, jh, th, kh, ch, dh, d̦h, lh, vh, mh, nh, and ņh. Overall, there is a high degree of similarity between the vowel and consonant systems of Pāli and Sindhi.

Genders, Cases, Numerals, and Gerunds

Pāli, like Sindhi, primarily employs two grammatical numbers—singular and plural—with only limited remnants of the dual, likely influenced by Sanskrit. It uses grammatical rather than natural gender (Bomhard, 2018: 9), similar to languages such as Brahui, Balochi, and English. Pāli has eight grammatical cases, whereas Sindhi has five, and recognizes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter (Bomhard, 2018: 9), compared to four in Sindhi. Noun, pronoun, and adjective declensions in Pāli are based on vowel and consonant endings and show strong similarities to Sindhi. Despite some differences in numeral formation, notable parallels remain (Bomhard, 2018: 47–48). Verbal tense formation, including participles and gerunds, is also largely similar in both languages (Bomhard, 2018: 53, 83).

Morphology

Morphology studies the internal structure and formation of words, examining how roots, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections combine to express grammatical meaning (Schemid, 2015: 1). The morphological systems of Pāli and Sindhi are closely related, differing only in minor respects, and both languages modify word forms to express categories such as gender, number, case, tense, and person.

Sindhi words are classified into primary (simple) and secondary forms, a division that also applies to Pāli (Rahman, 2009: 74). Examples of primary words include Sindhi Akk (اڪ) “a plant” and Pāli Citta (Sindhi چِتُ) “mind.” Secondary words include complex and compound forms. Complex words are formed through prefixes and suffixes; for instance, Sindhi Lajju (لڄ) “shame,” with the prefix Nir-“without,” becomes Nirlajjo (بي شرم) “shameless,” and with the suffix -ai forms Nirlajjai (نِر لڄائي / نرجائي / نرڄائي) “shamelessness,” corresponding to Pāli Nīrlajjatā (Rahman, 2009).

1. Nouns (Gender and Number)

Pāli:

Kāko (nominative singular masculine) means “crow.”

Kākā (nominative plural masculine) means “crows.”

Sindhi:

ڪانءُ (Kānū / Kākā) means “crow” (singular masculine).

ڪانءَ (Kānū) means “crows” (plural masculine).

2. Verbs (Tense and Person)

Pāli:

Gacchati means “he/she goes” (present tense, third person).

Agamāsi means “he/she went” (past tense, third person).

Sindhi:

هيءُ ڪري ٿو (kare tho) means “he does” (present tense, third person).

ڪنداسين (kandāsīn) means “we will do” (future tense, first person plural).

3. Adjectives (Agreement)

Pāli:

Sappuriso means “a good man” (masculine).

Sappurisā means “good women” (feminine).

Sindhi:

سٺو (sutho) means “good” (masculine).

سٺي (suthi) means “good” (feminine).

4. Compound Morphology

Pāli:

Dhamma + desanā → dhammadesanā (“teaching of the Dhamma”).

Sindhi:

Hatho + kar̦i → Hathkar̦i (هٿڪڙي) (Rahman, 2009: 74).

Syntax of the Sentence

The sentence structure in Pāli and Sindhi is the same, following the Subject–Object–Verb (SOV) order.

1. Pāli: Buddho dhammaṃ deseti.

Sindhi: Buddh dharamo d̦asey tho.

(ٻُڌ ڌرم ڏَسي ٿو)

2. Pāli: Satthā āyasmante āmanteti.

Sindhi: Ustad mūʿziz bhikshun khe khitāb karey tho.

(استاد معزز ڀِڪشُن کي خطاب ڪري ٿو)

3. Pāli: Ācariyo dārake sikkhāpeti.

Sindhi: Ustad bāṛan khe sikhāre tho.

(استاد ٻارن کي سيکاري ٿو)

Conclusion

This study demonstrates a strong linguistic affinity between Pāli and Sindhi, with over 40% shared vocabulary, often retaining identical meanings and closely related pronunciation. Parallels in phonology, morphology, grammar, and syntax further confirm their close relationship. These similarities suggest either that Pāli developed as a branch of Sindhi or that both languages emerged as parallel descendants of a common linguistic source. As Pāli functioned primarily as a religious language rather than a native vernacular, and Buddhism prevailed in Sindh until the seventh century CE, sustained contact between the two languages is likely. Additionally, Sindhi shares significant lexical and structural features with Proto-Dravidian and Dravidian languages, indicating deep historical roots. Consequently, Sindhi should not be viewed as a relatively recent Indo-Aryan language but as one with origins extending to the Proto-Dravidian period.

Read: Influence of Sanskrit on Sindhi language

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Aziz Kingrani, hailing from village Haji Manik Kingrani, Johi, Dadu District, Sindh, Pakistan, is poet, short story writer, playwright and a researcher. He has been contributing in the fields of history and literature. He has served as a professor as well. His 17 books are published in English and Sindhi language.