The best translators are bilingual—they are most capable of understanding and rendering complex language structures.
- The absence of creative translators has led to a decline in the quality of translations—and, in some cases, the loss of the very elements that made the original work unique.
Souad Khalil | Libya
Approaching the subject of literary translation compels us to begin by asking: What is literature? According to the Intermediate Arabic Dictionary, literature encompasses all forms of human intellectual production. Arkoun defines it as the sum of worldly knowledge that an educated, cultured person can draw upon in intellectual, ethical, and aesthetic matters—an ensemble of writings that shape and disseminate insight. Skarbett, on the other hand, states that literature is any work that is not a means to an end, but an end in itself.
But what does literature represent? The most common phrase is: “Literature is a mirror.” But a mirror of what? Some say it reflects society; others say it reflects the environment, surroundings, or even the writer’s mind. The interpretations are numerous, as are the theories. Yet is it incorrect to say that literature is a verbal expression of the writer’s stance toward life, the world, and the surrounding reality? Is it not true to claim that literature is a linguistic rendering of a profound human experience? I believe it is.
Literature is both a stance and a form of expression. It emerges from the individual who creates it, as proposed by the theory of literary creation, which views the literary work as a being brought to life by the creative artist from within. The raw material is language—molded by the writer’s soul and essence. Language becomes the tool of literary creation, the writer’s music, thought, colors, and clay. The subtle interaction between language and the writer’s sensory experience defines the literary work’s value.
Yet is subjectivity everything? Is it universally accepted?
Many argue that literature reflects the social reality in which the writer lives. They raise essential questions about the nature of society and its cohesion, often referencing the existence of two cultures within any community: a dominant culture (belonging to the ruling class) and a subjugated culture (produced by the oppressed classes). Some literary works reflect the status quo and invite reconciliation with it, while others seek to dismantle existing structures in pursuit of a better society.
The writer writes to express their relationship with reality—a reality in which they sense an imbalance. Thus, they strive to portray their vision of society or the world around them in a literary work. They use the linguistic system of the community they belong to, shaping it to serve a goal they define for themselves. In doing so, they are not aiming to showcase artistic or linguistic skill or to flaunt their knowledge, but to share an experience with their audience.
To achieve this, the writer uses their mother tongue—the language they feel, think, and write in. Through it, they express what they see, sense, and feel, weaving threads of perception into a fabric of meaning that may be invisible or inaccessible to others. In this creative act, the writer is unique. They generate images born from imagination and reflection, images that bear their name and imprint.
This creativity elevates the writer to a prominent position in their society—they become its conscience and spokesperson. Yet this creative output remains confined to the language in which it was written, trapped within a specific linguistic community. Unless a translator steps in to carry this creation into another language, it remains geographically and culturally restricted. Only then can the writer and their work cross borders and attain global reach, transforming from a national voice into a universal one.
But can a translator alone create a global writer or literature of universal stature?
In our view, no individual translator can turn a national writer—writing within their mother tongue—into a global literary figure. Nor can any translator alone transform national literature into world literature. For literature to become global, three essential factors must align:
A political environment (both local and international) that allows the literary work to emerge and spread.
Approval by major global publishing houses and distribution companies to publish and distribute the work.
A translation that matches the artistic depth and creativity of the original text.
Let’s explore these three factors:
- A Favorable Political Environment
The political context in which the writer lives can suppress or enable the emergence and dissemination of literary works. Historically, authorities have blocked the publication of many works they deemed incompatible with societal norms or politically undesirable. These works were often accused of breaching taboos, undermining shared values, or importing foreign, hostile ideas.
Russian author Boris Pasternak had to wait many years before his now-famous novel Doctor Zhivago could be published internationally and achieve global recognition. At the time, it was banned in the Soviet Union, and Pasternak was prohibited from publishing anything further. Initially, international political conditions weren’t conducive either, as the West was aligned with the USSR and unwilling to endorse works that might disrupt that alliance. In Soviet society, literature played a critical role in shaping public opinion.
Thus, both local and international political dynamics—along with their associated interests and power structures—directly influence whether literary works are published or buried, regardless of their intrinsic merit.
This line of thought (which some may dispute) leads us to conclude that not all globally celebrated literature is necessarily the most creative or most relevant to human and societal issues.
- Endorsement by Major Publishing and Distribution Entities
The global publishing industry has the power to make or break literary careers. Major publishing houses and distribution companies dominate the book market and can elevate a mediocre writer to international stardom—or suppress a brilliant writer if their work conflicts with corporate or institutional interests. These entities act as gatekeepers, filtering content based on commercial or ideological alignment, not necessarily literary merit.
These two factors—political conditions and the publishing industry—are critical for any literary work to achieve global recognition. They are often the first hurdle a literary work must overcome, regardless of its intrinsic creative value. In today’s world, international literary fame is not the product of individual effort alone; it requires the convergence of multiple interests and institutional backing.
- A Translation Worthy of the Original Work
Literary translation is not a mechanical transfer of words from one language to another. It is not an automated task, nor can it be reliably performed by a digital program. It is a creative endeavor that involves deep immersion in the mindset, values, customs, and cultural nuances of the society in which the original work was created—and the ability to convey that complexity into another language.
The creative level of the translation must be on par with that of the original. Only then can the translated work achieve the same level of recognition and impact as in its original form.
During the golden age of Arabic translation—particularly in the time of Al-Jahiz—this scholar developed a translation theory that remains relevant today. His theory outlines the following principles:
The translator’s eloquence in the target language must match their knowledge of the subject.
The translator must be deeply versed in both the source and target languages.
The translator must understand the linguistic structures and cultural norms of both societies.
The translator must skillfully enhance the text.
Translating poetry is particularly difficult.
Religious texts are especially challenging to translate.
If the translator fulfills points 1 and 2, point 3 implies that they must have a high level of awareness regarding the linguistic structures used by the author—structures that reflect the writer’s command of language and their unique creative imprint.
In point 5, Al-Jahiz emphasizes the difficulty of translating poetry—an observation we can extend to all literature, given the strong connection between poetry and prose.
This raises essential questions: Who translates literature? Do such translators even exist? The honest answer: Not always.
Translation is not merely linguistic transfer—it is cultural translation.
So, who can translate literature? Let us return to Portuguese Nobel laureate José Saramago, whose global reputation was shaped by the work of 45 translators who translated his work into various languages. As someone with firsthand experience, Saramago categorized translators into three types:
Those who translate without ever consulting the author.
Those who wish to collaborate but are hindered by time constraints or low compensation.
Those who actively consult the author—by phone, fax, or in person—to clarify every detail and ensure the translation’s accuracy.
The absence of creative translators has led to a decline in the quality of translations—and, in some cases, the loss of the very elements that made the original work unique.
So, what is the solution?
The researcher cites several examples from German and Persian translations, from which we can derive the following hypotheses—each deserving further study:
Global recognition often comes through the influence of publishing houses and their aligned interests.
Global publishers select national works to translate based on political or social alignment—not necessarily on literary excellence.
Low compensation for translation leads to lower quality, as translators cannot afford to dedicate the necessary time and energy.
Certain characteristics are essential in a literary translator:
The best translators are bilingual—they are most capable of understanding and rendering complex language structures.
Continuous dialogue between author and translator to clarify the work’s nuances.
A close friendship or collaborative relationship that includes the translator visiting the author and experiencing their environment.
Read: The Theory of Poetics and Literature
________________
Souad Khalil, hailing from Libya, is a writer, poet, and translator. She has been writing on culture, literature and other general topics.
All images provided by the author
